Difference between Bluetooth and WiFi

Communication is going wireless with the upsurge of smart mobile devices such as laptops, cellular phones, PDA, tablets etc. In order escape traps of wires and to stream data wirelessly among these devices, a number of protocols have been formulated such Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, NFC etc. Using these technologies users can exchange almost all sorts of files at high speeds. The speed of data transfer is not a major concern and there is no limit on data size exchanged. Though used for a lot of similar applications, these data exchange protocols have significantly different rule stacks and vary a lot in terms of range, device application etc. This article will detail with some of the common and uncommon differences between two such data exchange protocols: Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

1. Bluetooth vs. WiFi - Formulation: Bluetooth Technology’s invention has been credited to Ericsson which in the year 1994 launched it as a wireless communication alternative to RS232. Wi-Fi, though had researches since the mid 80s, was officially launched in the year 1997. A committee for development of Wi-Fi was set in the year 1990 which was head by, Victor Hayes who is also known as father of Wi-Fi.

    2. Bluetooth vs. WiFi -  IEEE Standards: Bluetooth was initially defined under IEEE 802.15.1 standard but is now taken care by a Special Interest Group (SIG). Wi-Fi, on the other hand, is defined under 802.11.x (x=a, b, c, and so on) series of protocols and is currently maintained under the same. A Wi-Fi alliance founded by various companies tests and authorizes gadgets to be Wi-Fi compatible.

3. Bluetooth vs. WiFi - Versions: Since its inception, Bluetooth has seen several versions of it such as Bluetooth 2.0, Bluetooth 2.1, Bluetooth 3.0 and the latest, Bluetooth 4.0. Added technologies such as Enhanced Data Rate (EDR), Alternate MAC/PHY, low energy protocols etc have been implemented in these updates.  

Various versions and upgrades are there in Wi-Fi too which are quite different than those in Bluetooth. Since, it is an IEEE 802.11 standard, Wi-Fi versions are termed as 802.11.a, 802.11b and so on.  These versions vary in terms of security protocols, radio frequency used for data exchange, maximum speed for data exchange, bandwidth occupied etc.

4. Bluetooth vs. WiFi - .Frequency: Bluetooth works at 2.4GHz frequency while Wi-Fi based networks work at 2.4, 3.6 and 5 GHz .

5. Bluetooth vs. WiFi - Data Transfer Rates: The latest additions to Bluetooth (Bluetooth 4.0) promises data transfer rates to be upto 25mbps while latest Wi-Fi version of Wi-Fi direct can reach upto 250mbps of data transferring rate. Earlier versions of Bluetooth were able to deliver data at 800 hops per second while Wi-Fi clocked up at speeds like 54mbps.

  6. Bluetooth vs. WiFi - Range: Maximum range for Bluetooth based wireless connections is 30m while for Wi-Fi, it can extend well upto 100m. In Wi-Fi, range depends on the version of Wi-Fi protocol applied and addition of antennas in the communication system while no such concerns of range or extra antenna are much known in Bluetooth.

   . Bluetooth vs. WiFi - Devices Connected: In Bluetooth, upto 7 devices can be connected to each other (piconet) while in Wi-Fi, the maximum connections depend on Wi-Fi router which can accommodate 1 to several communicating devices at a time.

8. Bluetooth vs. WiFi -  Connection Complexity: Connecting two devices over Bluetooth is fairly simple as there is just a simple key matching process. On the other hand, connections concerning Wi-Fi need an expertise in configuration and security pass code matching process. This makes Wi-Fi connection process more complex than the Bluetooth ones.

9. Bluetooth vs. WiFi - Security: Earlier versions of Bluetooth were encryption and even now Bluetooth security is limited to key matching. Whereas in Wi-Fi, the security standards have been raised with inclusion of new versions. Wireless Equivalent Privacy (WEP) and Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) are two most used security accesses used in Wi-Fi with the former being less secure than the latter.

10. Bluetooth vs. WiFi - Power Consumption: Able to works at longer distances and loaded with high quality security protocols makes Wi-Fi a more power consuming protocol than Bluetooth.

11. Bluetooth vs. WiFi - Applicative Scenario: Wi-Fi technology is more used in connecting computers to routers or internet gateways. Moreover, a number of electronic gadgets such as camera, gaming consoles, PDA’s etc. also make use of Wi-Fi to connect to each other or internet.

Bluetooth, on the other hand, is used to connect peripherals to the computer. Computer

keyboards, mouse, headsets etc. can be connected to the CPU using Bluetooth protocol.

There are internet based applications regarding Bluetooth but are less efficient than the Wi-Fi counterpart.

Related : Klik

Green Tea Health Benefits

Green tea is not oxidized (fermented) during its processing, and so its buds and leaves retain much of the naturally occurring chemicals present in the leaves when they grow, which gives green tea its famed health benefits.

Anti-aging Health Benefits

Many of the affects of aging, particularly on the skin, are caused by a build up of free radicals in the body, which can damage and aging of your body's cells.  Free radicals do occur naturally, but their concentrations are increased due to exposure to pollution, too much sunlight and some types of chemicals.  SOD (superoxide Dismutase) is one of the bodies chemicals that mops up free radicals to help prevent them damaging the bodies cells.  Chemicals called catechins that are present in green tea significantly improve the activity of SOD, and so provide a large boost to the bodies ability to fight the affect of free radicals.

Effects on bacterial and fungal infections (anti-bacterial)

A cup of green tea contains anywhere up to 200mg of catechins, that are known to give it's anti oxidant benefits.
However other scientific studies from Brigham and Womens Hospital in Boston, Okayama University in Japan and the National Institute of Chemistry in Slovenia, have backed up what was known in traditional Chinese medicine – that catechins, and so green tea, have a big benefit in helping fend off attacks on the body from bacteria.
It was found that the catechins in green tea inhibit the production of a key enzyme needed by bacteria, called gyrase, which interestingly is also the target of many clinically developed antibiotics.  This therefore inhibits the growth of the bacteria, and so reduces the change of getting an infection, and also helps alleviate existing bacterial infections.
The study done in Japan was particularly telling.  They found that patients who had been infected with drug resistant Staphlylococcus (staph) responded positively when treated with the catechins extracted from green tea.

Cholesterol Fighting

Several studies have shown that the catechins in teas can act as so-called “hypolipidemics” - that is they lower the amount of “bad” cholesterol in the body (called LDL), while increasing the amount of “good” cholesterol (called HDL).  Additionally other studies have suggested that other chemicals in green tea, called flavonols, help reduce hardening of the arteries, by naturally helping to keep the blood thin.
The upshot of this suggests that it helps reduce the chance of cardiovascular diseases, in particular heart attacks and strokes.

Green tea Benefits for Weight loose and reduce Cholesterol

“Drinking green tea everyday makes you thin” is a quote from an ancient Chinese medical text called Bencao Shiyi.  1,300 years and modern science is beginning to understand why.

For a detailed look into the weight loss benefits of green tea, we'd recommend you read Swen Wolfram's review called “Anti-obesity effects of green tea”.  We'll just give you a quick rundown  of the latest scientific thoughts on how this occurs below.

It appears that there are three compounds in green tea that collectively act together to help reduce weight – the catechins, caffeine and an amino acid called theanine. Researchers did a study with animals, monitoring weight, food intake, fat levels and other health indicators and concluded that these compounds appears to act synergistically to reduce weight gain. You can read there study here for more info.

Another study by Lin and Lin-Shaiu suggested that this action partly occurs because the chemicals help suppress the bodies production of fatty acids, by regulating the bodies gene that is responsible for their production.

Of course weight loss and cholesterol are strongly intertwined.  These studies point to the fact that lowering cholesterol helps to reduce your weight, and also the reverse, that lowering your weight will help cut down cholesterol.  So whether its the chicken or the egg first, drinking green tea, in combination with a good diet and exercise, definitely supports the ancient chinese observation, that it does indeed act as a good way to reduce your weight.

For more information about Green Tea weigh loss Benefits please check our article on Do Green Tea Weight Loss Diets Really Work

Prevention of tooth decay and bad breath

Fluoride is frequently added world-wide to drinking water and tooth paste as the number one way to help prevent tooth decay.  Green tea is a big natural source of fluoride, so this in combination with its anti-bacterial effects provides a great natural way to help strengthen your teeth, prevent cavities and help reduce bad breath.

Cancer prevention

Studies have also suggested that green tea possibly helps prevent the onset of several types of cancers, including lung, prostrate and breast cancers.  The possible reason, according to a study at Kyushu University in Japan, is an anti-oxidant in the tea called epigallocatechin gallate (the short form – EGCG – is of course a lot easier to say!).
Another study on bladder cancer suggested that it has potential as a cancer fighting agent, while is proving that the chemicals in the tea are able to target the cancer cells while leaving the healthy cells untouched and alone.

Green Tea Benefit for skin

In traditional Chinese medicine green tea and its extracts are commonly used to prevent and treat a number of skin diseases, including skin cancer.  The high content of a different anti-oxidants, called polyphenols, seems to be responsible for this by removing free radicals from the skin before they have a chance to attack the DNA in you skins cells, which otherwise can lead to cancer.
Topical applications of green tea extracts also help protect against UV exposure from the sun, and are used to reduce the impact the sun has on the health of your skin.

It contains a high concentration of polyphenols, chemicals with potent antioxidant properties. In modern Chinese medicine and culture, green tea and its extracts are extensively used in the prevention and treatment of various skin diseases, including skin cancer. The rich polyphenol content in it scavenges free radicals, cell damaging compounds in the body that alter DNA molecules in the chromosomes, inducing harmful mutations that lead to the initiation of skin cancer.

Topical applications of green tea extracts (EGCG) have protective effects on UVA- and UVB-induced skin damage (photoaging and carcinogenesis).

A study done in 2003 at the Georgia Medical College seemed to back this up, by concluding that green tea helps rejuvenate skin cells and protect against ultraviolet damage to the cells.

These results and beliefs all suggest that it might have several significant benefits to your health.  But, like all things, it is not any sort of magic bullet that will by itself provide you with benefits, nor do these benefits appear immediately.  Many of the benefits found for green tea, only occur after drinking it for an extended time, months or years.  This is also backed up by Chinese traditional medicine, where it is recommended as an integral long term part of a healthy diet, not as some immediate fix that will instantly cure diseases.

Related : Klik

Global Warming Effects and Causes: A Top 10 List

1. Global Warming Cause: Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel burning power plants

Our ever increasing addiction to electricity from coal burning power plants releases enormous amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. 40% of U.S. CO2 emissions come from electricity production, and burning coal accounts for 93% of emissions from the electric utility industry [EPA, pg. 10]. Every day, more electric gadgets flood the market, and without widespread alternative energy sources, we are highly dependent on burning coal for our personal and commercial electrical supply.

2. Global Warming Cause: Carbon dioxide emissions from burning gasoline for transportation

Our modern car culture and appetite for globally sourced goods is responsible for about 33% of emissions in the U.S. [EPA pg. 8] With our population growing at an alarming rate, the demand for more cars and consumer goods means that we are increasing the use of fossil fuels for transportation and manufacturing. Our consumption is outpacing our discoveries of ways to mitigate the effects, with no end in sight to our massive consumer culture.

3. Global Warming Cause: Methane emissions from animals, agriculture such as rice paddies, and from Arctic seabeds

Methane is another extremely potent greenhouse gas, ranking right behind CO2. When organic matter is broken down by bacteria under oxygen-starved conditions (anaerobic decomposition) as in rice paddies, methane is produced. The process also takes place in the intestines of herbivorous animals, and with the increase in the amount of concentrated livestock production, the levels of methane released into the atmosphere is increasing. Another source of methane is methane clathrate, a compound containing large amounts of methane trapped in the crystal structure of ice. As methane escapes from the Arctic seabed, the rate of global warming will increase significantly.

4. Global Warming Cause: Deforestation, especially tropical forests for wood, pulp, and farmland

The use of forests for fuel (both wood and for charcoal) is one cause of deforestation, but in the first world, our appetite for wood and paper products, our consumption of livestock grazed on former forest land, and the use of tropical forest lands for commodities like palm oil plantations contributes to the mass deforestation of our world. Forests remove and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and this deforestation releases large amounts of carbon, as well as reducing the amount of carbon capture on the planet.

5. Global Warming Cause: Increase in usage of chemical fertilizers on croplands

In the last half of the 20th century, the use of chemical fertilizers (as opposed to the historical use of animal manure) has risen dramatically. The high rate of application of nitrogen-rich fertilizers has effects on the heat storage of cropland (nitrogen oxides have 300 times more heat-trapping capacity per unit of volume than carbon dioxide) and the run-off of excess fertilizers creates ‘dead-zones’ in our oceans. In addition to these effects, high nitrate levels in groundwater due to over-fertilization are cause for concern for human health.

6. Global Warming Effect: Rise in sea levels worldwide

Scientists predict an increase in sea levels worldwide due to the melting of two massive ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland, especially on the East coast of the U.S. However, many nations around the world will experience the effects of rising sea levels, which could displace millions of people. One nation, the Maldives, is already looking for a new home, thanks to rising sea levels.

7. Global Warming Effect: More killer storms

The severity of storms such as hurricanes and cyclones is increasing, and research published in Nature found:

“Scientists have come up with the firmest evidence so far that global warming will significantly increase the intensity of the most extreme storms worldwide. The maximum wind speeds of the strongest tropical cyclones have increased significantly since 1981, according to research published in Nature this week. And the upward trend, thought to be driven by rising ocean temperatures, is unlikely to stop at any time soon.”

8. Global Warming Effect: Massive crop failures

According to recent research, there is a 90% chance that 3 billion people worldwide will have to choose between moving their families to milder climes and going hungry due to climate change within 100 years. One of the main causes of this will be the spread of desertification, and its accompanying effects.

“Climate change is expected to have the most severe impact on water supplies. “Shortages in future are likely to threaten food production, reduce sanitation, hinder economic development and damage ecosystems. It causes more violent swings between floods and droughts.”” – Guardian: Global warming causes 300,000 deaths a year

9. Global Warming Effect: Widespread extinction of species

According to research published in Nature, by 2050, rising temperatures could lead to the extinction of more than a million species. And because we can’t exist without a diverse population of species on Earth, this is scary news for humans.

This 6th mass extinction is really just a continuation of the holocene extinction which began at the end of the last ice age and has resulted in the extinction of nearly all of the Earth’s megafauna animals, largely as a result of human-expansion.

“Climate change now represents at least as great a threat to the number of species surviving on Earth as habitat-destruction and modification.” Chris Thomas, conservation biologist at the University of Leeds

Widespread species loss and lists of endangered species just keep growing. This is a concerning matter on many fronts.

10. Global Warming Effect: Disappearance of coral reefs

A report on coral reefs from WWF says that in a worst case scenario, coral populations will collapse by 2100 due to increased temperatures and ocean acidification. The ‘bleaching’ of corals from small but prolonged rises in sea temperature is a severe danger for ocean ecosystems, and many other species in the oceans rely on coral reefs for their survival.

“Despite the oceans’s immensity — 71 per cent of the Earth’s surface with an average depth of almost 4km (2½m) — there are indications that it is approaching its tipping point. For reefs, warming waters and acidification are closing in like a pair of jaws that threaten to make them the first global ecosystem to disappear.” – Times Online: 21st-century Noah’s Ark needed to save coral reefs from extinction

 Related : Klik

The History Of Kopi Luwak Coffee

Coffee grows in dozens of countries around the world. Some varieties have earned a special reputation, often based on a combination of rarity, unusual circumstances and particularly good flavor. These coffees, from Jamaican Blue Mountain to Kona to Tanzanian Peaberry, command a premium price. But perhaps no coffee in the world is in such short supply, has such unique flavors and an, um, interesting background as Kopi Luwak. And no coffee even comes close in price: Kopi Luwak sells for $375.00 Per Pound. 

Kopi (the Indonesian word for coffee) Luwak comes from the islands of Sumatra, Java and Sulawesi (formerly Celebes), which are part of the Indonesian Archepelago's 13,677 islands (only 6,000 of which are inhabited). But it's not strictly the exotic location that makes these beans worth their weight in silver. It's how they're "processed."

On these Indonesian islands, there's a small marsupial called the paradoxurus, a tree-dwelling animal that is part of the sibet family. Long regarded by the natives as pests, they climb among the coffee trees eating only the ripest, reddest coffee cherries.

Curiously, Kopi Luwak isn't the only "specialty" food that begins this way. Argan is an acacia-like tree that grows in Morocco and Mexico which, through its olive-like fruit, yields argan oil. In Morocco, the Berbers encourage goats to climb the trees to eat the fruit. They later gather the goats' excrement and remove the pits, which they grind for oil to be used in massage, in cooking and as an aphrodisiac. 

What started as, presumably, a way for the natives to get coffee without climbing the trees has since evolved into the world's priciest specialty coffee. Japan buys the bulk of Kopi Luwak, but M.P. Mountanos (800-229-1611), the first in the United States to bring in this exotic bean, recently imported 110 pounds after a seven year search for a reliable and stable supplier.
"It's the rarest beverage in the world," Mark Mountanos says, estimating a total annual crop of less than 500 pounds.

Richard Karno, former owner of The Novel Cafe in Santa Monica, California, got a flyer from Mountanos about Kopi Luwak and thought it was a joke. But Karno was intrigued, found it that it was true. He ordered a pound for a tasting. Karno sent out releases to the local press inviting them to a cupping. When no one responded, he roasted it and held a cupping for himself and his employees. Karno is very enthusiastic, a convert to Kopi Luwak. "It's the best coffee I've ever tasted. It's really good, heavy with a caramel taste, heavy body. It smells musty and jungle-like green, but it roasts up real nice. The LA Times didn't come to our cupping, but ran a bit in their food section, which hit the AP Wire service." And Karno and the folks at M.P. Mountanos have been inundated with calls ever since.

Mountanos says, "It's the most complex coffee I've ever tasted," attributing the unusual flavors to the natural fermentation the coffee beans undergo in the paradoxurus' digestive system. The stomach acids and enzymes are very different from fermenting beans in water. Mountanos says, "It has a little of everything pleasurable in all coffees: earthy, musty tone, the heaviest bodied I've ever tasted. It's almost syrupy, and the aroma is very unique." While it won't be turning up in every neighborhood cafe any day soon, Mountanos reports that Starbucks bought it for cuppings within the company. 

In fact, most of Mountanos' customers have bought it for special cuppings. The Coffee Critic in San Mateo, California, though, occasionally sells Kopi Luwak to the public for $5.00 per cup. In most coffee shops they will charge up to $28.00 per cup. But shop owner owner Linda Nederman says she keeps the price low at only $5.00 per cup to allow people to experience the coffee. Nederman says that most of her people who try it are longtime customers, and they're "game to try something different and unusual. I've never had anybody complain, they all seem to feel it's worth the price." Nederman drinks it herself every time they brew it. 

"I've never tasted anything like it. It's an unbelieveable taste in your mouth: richness, body, earthiness, smooth." She also carries Jamaica Blue Mountain, Burundi Superior AA and Brazil FZA "Natural Dry," so her customers are used to fine and exotic coffees. Still, she reports, many are afraid to try Kopi Luwak.

"It's excellent coffee. But I always caution customers that you can't get $75 worth of quality in any coffee, there's no such thing. You're paying for the experience of quaffing the world's rarest and most expensive coffee. The palate would recognize it as Sumatran or Indonesian right away. It has earthy tones of natural processed Sumatra Mandheling. It has low acidity with a syrupy body. There's something else there, a nuance in the flavor profile that I can't describe, and when I've challanged others, no one else can either. It's almost alien, a tiny little flavor note, highly exotic." The last bag he sold was to John Cleese of Monty Python and Fierce Creatures fame.
But not everyone is seduced by this exotic coffee's charms. "Kopi Luwak is, in my opinion, indistinguishable from many an average robusta, especially if you cup them next to each other," says Tim Castle, coffee expert and author of The Perfect Cup, referring to the lower grade of commercially available coffees. "Kopi Luwak's processing is unusual and attracts attention. In that sense, it is an interesting coffee."

Related : Klik

10 Steps to Becoming a Successful Entrepreneur

Succeeding as an entrepreneur takes hard work and persistence because, unfortunately, there is no business-startup fairy who magically bestows success on small businesses and their owners.

Most successful entrepreneurs follow comparable patterns and share similar basic characteristics. Hundreds of online articles and published books claim to know the secret of success in business, but for the most part, they boil down to the same major points.

Passion, perseverance and a positive attitude tend to set successful entrepreneurs apart. Cultivating these attributes requires an innate skill set and some tips to get started.

So here are the main items to take into consideration if you’re trying to develop a business platform. These elements constitute will support a smart strategy for any new enterprise:

1. Love what you do.

Passion is key to keeping a business strategy moving. Half-heartedness in an entrepreneurial endeavor will chip away at your drive to succeed. Perseverance is the one thing that’s guaranteed to move anything over time, whether it’s a person, a job or an entire company. Abraham Lincoln failed at most of his efforts until late in his life, but he never gave up.

2. Take baby steps.

Jumping all in is rarely ever successful. There are success stories about people who invested everything once and came out winners after six months or a couple years, but those are rare. Risk management is an essential factor in any startup, and balance is vital. You can absorb losses more easily if you take smaller risks in the beginning. Those will provide essential and productive lessons.

Related: Forget Big Goals. Take Baby Steps for Small, Daily Wins.

3. Learn from others.

Successful entrepreneurs often worked for others in their field of choice before striking out on their own. Spending a few years in the industry under an excellent mentor will provide a good launching pad. Learn from your predecessors’ mistakes and brainstorm about how to improve upon their model. Find someone willing to teach, and think about starting your business elsewhere when you leave.

4. Learn how to self-promote.

Confidence and a good elevator speech can take any pitch to the next level. The first marketing any company experiences comes from its founder. Spend time learning how to share your vision without coming across as “salesy.” Don’t be afraid to ask for the sale, but remember: the client is always the focus.  

5. Constantly take action.

Entrepreneurs are movers and shakers. They can’t afford to analyze every detail or they’d never get anywhere. There is no place for procrastination in a startup. It’s a 24/7, no-vacation-or-sick-days kind of job that demands constant forward momentum. Make a brief assessment at every step and move on it. Trust your instincts.

Related: The Scientific Reason You Should Trust Your Gut

6. Make a plan.

Read about successful businesses. Take in the wealth of knowledge that’s been provided by successful entrepreneurs such as Steve Jobs and the personalities from Shark Tank. A successful business plan does not have to be a book. A 10-page plan is digestible yet long enough to include everything you need to start.

7. Build a reputation.

According to Brandi Bennett at HostGator.com, maintaining a blog on a well-hosted website, or volunteering your time and skills, shows instead of tells the community, and thereby builds expertise and trust.

8. It’s never too late to start.

Many successful entrepreneurs started later in life. J. K. Rowling (Harry Potter author), Julia Child (chef), and Sam Walton (Wal-Mart) all started their wildly successful brands after they were comfortably along in their lives. Having the experience that comes with age can give you a unique outlook on your business. Life experiences bring depth that the most educated young adult, by his or her nature, is less able to foresee.

9. Build your "A team".

Finding the skill sets and attitudes that support the culture of the brand you want to promote will foster innovation and enhance your reputation. Include folks from outside the company for the people you rely on. That will start a free marketing chain reaction that can build confidence and revenue.

10. Be mindful of your attitude.

The attitude of the founder will set the tone for the business. Negativity, laziness and entitlement waste time and money while they tarnish your reputation. Success largely depends on making mistakes and accepting blame in stride. Owning up to and facing challenges head-on is what makes a mere business owner a leader.

Starting a business can wreak havoc on the owner’s personal life. While all the above tips are necessary for success, taking care of yourself mentally and physically is also imperative. Exercise, sleep and diet play a central role in ensuring you implement these policies successfully. All of them drive attitude, motivation and relationships.

Successful CEOs tend to follow a structured, daily schedule of rising early, exercising, having snacks on hand for fuel and socializing many evenings of the week.

Striking a balance may take a while, but working toward this list as a goal for starting your company will make the difference. How an owner feels about progress and how quickly a business can be up and running -- and feeding that bottom line -- will swiftly feel the impact.

 Related : Klik

USB 2.0 vs USB 3.0

USB 3.0 provides better speed and more efficient power management thanUSB 2.0. USB 3.0 is backward compatible with USB 2.0 devices; however, data transfer speeds are limited to USB 2.0 levels when these devices inter-operate. In 2014, a new standard, USB 3.1, was released and is expected to be in widespread use by 2015.

What is USB 3.0 and USB 2.0?

A USB 3.0 Memory Stick

Developed in the 1990s, the Universal Serial Bus (USB) standard was developed to define communication protocols, including cables and connectors, between computers and electronic devices such as printers and scanners. As the number of devices multiplied in quantity and types, the USB port was adopted as the basic connection portal.

Devices like smartphones, PDAs, tablets, smartphones and video game consoles can connect to computers with USB ports allowing recharging and communication thereby replacing the requirement of adapters and power chargers.

USB3.0 was released in November 2008, almost eight years after the release of USB 2.0. Over five years later, in 2014, USB 3.1 was released with widespread use expected in 2015.

What is USB 3.1?

The newest standard is for USBs is USB 3.1. It offers three major improvements over 3.0: an "always right" C-type connector that plugs in without regard to orientation, higher data transfer speeds of up to 10 Gbps (gigabits per second), and the capacity to power any type of device.

The C-type connector is small enough for modern, slim devices, such as MacBook Air-type notebooks, tablets, and smartphones. but still robust enough for 10,000 cycles of use. Data transfer speeds are more in sync with current app and user needs, especially for video and image files. And the option to connect to and power any type of device, with 100 watts of charging power that can be divided between two devices, greatly reduces "charger and cable clutter," simplifying connectivity between personal devices. However, backwards compatibility will be limited.

USB 3.0 Highlights and Benefits over USB 2.0

·         Transfer rates: USB 2.0 offers transfer rates of 480 Mbps, and USB 3.0 offers transfer rates of 4.8 Gbps — 10 times faster.

·         Addition of another physical bus: The amount of wires was doubled, from 4 to 8. Additional wires required more space in both the cables and connectors, so new types of connectors were designed.

·         Power consumption: USB 2.0 provides up to 500 mA whereas USB 3.0 provides up to 900 mA. The USB 3 devices provide more power when needed and conserve power when the device is connected but idling.

·         More bandwidth: Instead of one-way communication, USB 3.0 uses two unidirectional data paths, one to receive data and the other to transmit while USB 2.0 can only handle only one direction of data at any time.

·         Improved bus utilization: A new feature was added (using packets NRDY and ERDY) to let a device asynchronously notify the host of its readiness.

When data is being transferred through USB 3.0 devices, cables, and connectors, the transaction is initiated by the host making a request followed by a response from the device. The device either accepts the request or rejects it. If accepted, the device sends data or accepts data from the host. If there is lack of buffer space or data, it responds with a Not Ready (NRDY) signal to tell the host that it is not able to process the request. When the device is ready then, it will send an Endpoint Ready (ERDY) to the host which will then reschedule the transaction.

Physical Differences

USB 3.0 Connectors are different from USB 2.0 Connectors and the 3.0 connectors are usually colored blue on the inside in order to distinguish them from the 2.0 connectors.

Various types of USB Connectors (click to enlarge). From Left to Right: Micro USB Type AB, Micro USB Type B, USB 2.0 Type A, USB 2.0 Type B, USB 3.0 Type A, USB 3.0 Type B, USB 3.0 Type Micro B, Min USB Type A connector.

Backward Compatible

USB 3.0 is compatible with USB 2.0. However, the USB 3.0 product will perform at the same level as a USB 2.0 product, so speed and power benefits will not be fully realized.

USB 3.0 receptacles are electrically compatible with USB Standard 2.0 device plugs if they physically match. USB 3.0 type-A plugs and receptacles are completely backward compatible, and USB 3.0 type-B receptacles will accept USB 2.0 and earlier plugs. However, USB 3.0 type-B plugs will not fit into USB 2.0 and earlier receptacles.

This means that USB 3.0 cables cannot be used with USB 2.0 and USB 1.1 peripherals, although USB 2.0 cables can be used with USB 3.0 devices, if at USB 2.0 speeds.

Related : Klik

HOW TO TAKE GREAT PHOTOS AT NIGHT

Have you ever tried to take a photo at night, outside, and it came out terribly? Perhaps you were on vacation and saw a postcard of cars whizzing by the Eiffel Tower, streams of light from the headlights in the foreground and the beautiful monument in the background. But when you tried to replicate the image, it was a far cry from what you envisioned.

There’s a reason for this. Night photography follows the same rules as any other photograph. That is, when an image is not taken using the general principles of photography, errors occur. Photography literally means, writing with light. If you don’t have enough light, or you don’t take the available light that you do have into account, you’re going to end up with rubbish photographs.

Here’s how to take great photos at night. Obviously, like with anything in photography, this is subject to various techniques. My technique for getting the shot may be different than others.

1.   Use a Tripod. I cannot stress this enough. In fact, as your photography skills grow, you will find that it is almost impossible to live without a tripod.

2.   Learn the manual settings on your camera. Know what shutter speed and aperture have to do with it. I’ve written an article on that also.

3.   Use a shutter release cable. These can be purchased at almost any good camera store. This will help with the camera vibration. It’s a small cord that can be attached to your camera, which allows you to take your finger off of the shutter release button, dampening vibration. Wireless remotes or the camera’s built in timer are other options.

4.   Use the mirror lockup function. DSLRs have a mirror, which, when you look through the viewfinder, reflects the image from the lens, so you can see what the lens is seeing. This causes vibration in the camera and can lead to blurry photos. Mirror lockup reduces camera vibration.

Okay, you have all the ingredients to make a great photo at night. Here’s how to put them all together:

Using your tripod, set up the shot which you think is pleasing to the eye. Set your camera to manual and set your mirror lockup function.

Use your in-camera light meter to determine what the best exposure will be. For instance, if you’re using an aperture of /f11 and an ISO of 100, you might get a reading of 2 seconds, or more. Here is where it gets interesting; the slower your shutter speed, the more action you’re going to record. Meaning, if you have a shutter speed of 10 seconds and within those 10 seconds 35 cars speed by your image, in your foreground, you’re going to capture a lot of streaming lights. This is quite a nice effect in night photography. The shutter speed and aperture will work together to give you the sort of image you’re looking for. Maybe you don’t care about streaming lights, then don’t worry about having super long shutter speeds.

One thing to make a note of is that the aperture really doesn’t matter here. Anything above, say, f/5.6 is fine for night photos. You’re not too concerned with capturing depth of field in the foreground and background. This is especially true for cityscapes. I have shot at f/2.8 at times and had very similar results as f/11, because everything I’m shooting is so far away. My lens is focused at infinity to be exact.

Also, ISO speeds of 100 or 200 are fine here. In fact, they’re preferable. Remember, we’re not trying to stop the action. We’re trying to capture it in the time frame of our shutter speed.

It’s really no more complicated than that. Think about the effect you want to create; long shutter speeds to capture the foreground and background movement and making sure your camera is steady and that there are no vibrations, which could blur your image.

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